Racewalking: Key Lower Extremity Concepts

Racewalking first became an Olympic event in 1904.¹ Racewalking differs from normal walking and running because of rules established by the International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF). These rules state that:

1. the racewalker must maintain one leg in contact with the ground; and
2. the advancing leg must remain straight (ie not bent at the knee) from the moment of first contact with the ground until the vertical upright position.²

These rules are believed to restrict racewalkers’ gait, thereby creating unique gait patterns. However, do these restrictions increase susceptibility to lower extremity injuries? This article will provide unique insight from a podiatric medicine point of view of biomechanics, injuries, and shoe/orthotics recommendations for racewalking.

A Primer on the Biomechanics of Racewalking

Gait Analysis. A study by Cairns and colleagues found that, compared to normal walking, racewalking gait patterns have greater:

• ankle plantarflexion and dorsiflexion;
• knee flexion, extension, and hyper-extension; and
• hip flexion, extension, and abduction.³

Normal walking is about 65 percent stance phase and 35 percent swing phase; however, in running, stance is 40 percent, swing is about 30 percent, and floating phase is 30 percent.⁴ Cairns noted that in racewalking, the stance and swing phases are equal.³ Preatoni and team used an 8-camera optoelectric motion analysis system to look at the kinematics and kinetics of racewalking and noted that there is a greater dorsiflexion angle at heel strike and plantarflexion angle at toe-off compared to normal walking.⁵ Analyzing gait can provide insights into key major muscle groups and help one further understand the pathomechanics of injuries.

Muscle Activation. The most commonly activated muscle groups during racewalking are similar to walking and running.⁶ Gomez-Ezeiza and coworkers focused on analyzing the association between muscle activation patterns based on oxygen cost of transport in elite racewalkers.⁷ They focused on six muscle groups: gluteus maximus, adductor magnus, rectus femoris, bicep femoris, medial gastrocnemius, and tibialis anterior. Athletes exhibiting better racewalking economy showed posterior muscle group activity in the following relationships:

• terminal swing – bicep femoris and gluteus maximus;
• midstance – medial gastrocnemius, tibialis anterior, and rectus femoris; and
• propulsion and swing – rectus femoris and adductor magnus.

This study highlights the significance of gait cycle analysis and muscle performance during racewalking. They also emphasize the importance of optimal performance regarding metabolic demands of movement and techniques.7

Joint Movements. An examination of joint movements during racewalking found that the most motion takes place in the sagittal plane, with increased hip and knee extension, as well as dorsiflexion at the ankle. In the frontal plane, there is adduction at the knee and hips, as well as inversion of the ankle. In the transverse plane, there is internal rotation in all lower extremity joints.⁶

Racewalking Injuries: What You Should Know

Although many may look at racewalking as a sport with valuable health and fitness benefits with less risk of injury, some noted injuries still occur with this sport. Francis and colleagues studied 682 race walkers and found 107 reported knee injuries, 104 reported foot injuries, and 64 reported shin injuries. Another report revealed shin pain and high hamstring strain as the most reported injuries.¹

The authors had the opportunity to discuss racewalking injuries with Carmen Jackinsky (Coach Carmen), racewalker athlete, coach, and owner of Reshod walking shoes. She suggested that, in her experience, most shin pain occurs early in a workout and subsides as the walker progresses. She explained that when a runner’s heel strikes the ground, the quadriceps engage eccentrically to absorb the ground reaction forces before assisting in the push-off phase of each stride, which in her observation may contribute to high hamstring pain. Overall, she shared that there are significant vertical and rotational forces that the racewalker must stabilize throughout their gait cycle.

Payne and colleagues’ research further explains this concept, finding that the posterolateral force on the feet was more prominent among racewalkers, contributing to knee-related injuries. They contended that an extended knee or a knee in a taut position caused high peak pressures, which can lead to lower extremity injuries. They also cite the commonality of overuse injuries such as hamstring injuries and shin splints due to the overloaded force of the mid-tibial structure.⁸ This can be explained because of the energy absorbed by the straight knee during swing phase.

Footwear in Racewalking: Understanding the Impact

Limited research exists regarding recommended shoe gear and orthotic modifications for racewalking. It is vital to wear properly fitting shoes when participating in any sport. However, not all foot types warrant the same treatment. For pes planus or flat feet, typically, motion-control shoes are recommended. A stability shoe provides adequate support for a normal or rectus foot type. Lastly, neutral or cushioned shoes may best work for a cavus foot type.⁹

In a questionnaire of 682 racewalkers, 37.5 percent reported they normally used shoes designed for racewalking during training and competition and 59.8 percent reported they used running shoes.¹⁰ The remainder of the subjects used shoes designed for court or racquet sports.10 This poses an issue because running shoes often provide vertical motion from the heel height and soft foam. On the contrary, horizontal motion in racewalking is more beneficial as it increases stride length and speed while maintaining the rules of racewalking.⁸

According to a recent conversation between the lead author and Jennifer Wong, CPed, CFts, CCWS, many elite racewalkers seem to compete in running racing flats. She added that running racing flats exist among multiple brands, typically have a faster heel-to-toe transition and have the following characteristics:

• lightweight materials;
• low heel-to-toe drop (low drop is 1-4mm, mid drop is 5-8mm); and
• low stack height (less than 25mm).

Wong suggested that racewalkers should consult with a podiatrist about custom orthotics; due to the unique rules of competitive race walking altering natural walking gait, a custom insole may benefit from design flexibility to maintain race rules. In addition, she noted that the sock thickness can provided a little more cushioning to compensate for the thin and flexible shoes.

Coach Carmen shared with the authors that multiple styles in her shoe brands have earned US andor foreign patents. In her discussion with the authors, she notes that while the basic elements of traditional racewalking shoes consist of a low but firm heel profile, flexible forefoot and a low ankle collar, Coach Carmen created a shoe contrary to this standard. In her experience, the stiff rocker sole creates a more advantageous foot posture from which to propel forward, and the higher ankle collar helps prevent debris from entering the shoe. Various midsole designs with multi-angled foam allow a smooth roll from heel to toe.

A Closer Look at the Role of Orthotics

Song and colleagues noted that insoles and pressure relief shoes reduce plantar pressure for patients with diabetes; thus, they hypothesized that racewalkers could benefit in a similar manner by using arch-supported functional insoles.¹¹ They noted that functional insole reduced the pressure in the MTPJs, increased pressure in the medial arch, and reduced the first ground reaction force peak. The functional insole reduced peak pressure on the heel by transferring the load toward the midfoot, and the heel cup provided more support to the calcaneus.¹¹

In a conversation between Richard Blake, DPM, and the lead author, he agreed with Ms. Wong that elite racewalkers tend to train in a heavier shoe, and during competition, they switch to thin, lightweight shoes to improve their performance. Dr. Blake states that in his experience, orthoses for these athletes should have an even surface with a neutral shell, typically carbon graphite due to its thin and lightweight characteristics (approximately 0.85mm). Dr. Blake adds that forefoot and midfoot features depend on foot type. For instance, pes planus foot types, may benefit from inversion along the medial column, and those with pes cavus may require extra eversion to maintain proper anatomic alignment. As for the rearfoot, Dr. Blake suggests no rearfoot post is necessary because elevating the heel may add additional strain to the extensor muscle group.

Thoughts From an American Olympic Racewalker       

Nick Christie is an American Olympic Racewalker who competed with the 2021 USA Track and Field team. During an interview with the lead author, he mentioned he uses Racewalk 900 shoes from Newfeel by Decathlon. He trains in the V1 edition and races with V2, rotating shoes every 3 days and discarding them after 2 months.

Mr. Christie shares that he prefers flat, low-profile, zero or low heel-to-toe drop shoes for racewalking.

“I don’t like (a) thick heel, because when we have to straighten our knee, its less stable and can cause technical issues,” he says. “I find it has to do with the shoe material as well – if it’s soft, then your knee tends to buckle, and you get (a) bent knee when you land.”

Focusing on injuries, Mr. Christie notes experiencing hamstring and calf strains caused mainly by overuse injuries. He says he manages them by creating a strong stretching regimen that entails ballistic stretching, lunges, quadriceps stretching, and deep tissue massages. In addition, he fine-tunes his techniques by practicing technical drills to activate different steps of racewalking.

Concluding Thoughts

Racewalking is a unique sport that consists of rules that athletes must obey to remain in the race. However, these established rules consequently lead to unique gait patterns and may even pose a risk for overuse injuries. Future studies should explore the impact of foot type in racewalking, evaluate different muscle groups (i.e. tibialis posterior and iliotibial band) and evaluate footwear to prevent injuries during racewalking, among other topics. Podiatric physicians gaining a deeper understanding of the locomotion of racewalking and the resultant proper footwear could contribute positively to the care of these athletes, including injury reduction and performance enhancement. 

Ms. Krishnan is a fourth-year podiatric medical student at the California School of Podiatric Medicine at Samuel Merritt University.

Dr. Dutra is an Assistant Professor at the California School of Podiatric Medicine at Samuel Merritt University, Oakland, CA. He serves as a podiatric consultant for Intercollegiate Athletics at University of California, Berkeley, CA. He is a Past President and Fellow of the American Academy of Podiatric Sports Medicine. Dr. Dutra is Vice Chair of the Joint Commission on Sports Medicine and Science and he is a Clinical Director for the Special Olympics of Northern California Healthy Athletes Fit Feet Program.

References
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2.    IAAF. Competition Rules 2018-2019. IAAF; 2018. Available at: www.iaaf.org
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7.    Gomez-Ezeiza J, Santos-Concejero J, Torres-Unda J, Hanley B, Tam N. Muscle activation patterns correlate with race walking economy in elite race walkers: a waveform analysis. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2019;14(9):1250-1255.
8.    Payne AH. A comparison of the ground reaction forces in racewalking with those in normal walking and running. In: Asmussen E, Jorgensen K (eds.) Biomechanics VI-A. University Park Press;1978:293-302.
9.    Werd MB, Knight EL, Langer PR, eds. Athletic Footwear and Orthoses in Sports Medicine. Springer; 2010.
10.    Hanley BS. Biomechanical analysis of elite race walking. [Dissertation]. Leeds, England: Leeds Metropolitan University; 2014
11.    Song Q, Xu K, Yu B, Zhang C, Sun W, Dewei M. Could insoles offload pressure? An evaluation of the effects of arch-supported functional insoles on plantar pressure distribution during race walking. Res Sports Med. 2015;23(3):278-288.